After tobacco companies argued that cigarette smoking had never been proven to cause lung cancer or heart disease in humans, how did epidemiological researchers establish such a causal relationship?

A) They proved it through experimental studies.
B) They inferred it as all seven criteria were met.
C) They inferred it via overwhelming evidence.
D) They established it by doing both (b) and (c) .

Question

​After tobacco companies argued that cigarette smoking had never been proven to cause lung cancer or heart disease in humans, how did epidemiological researchers establish such a causal relationship?A)  ​They proved it through experimental studies.B)  ​They inferred it as all seven criteria were met.C)  ​They inferred it via overwhelming evidence.D)  ​They established it by doing both (b)  and (c) .

Caleb Mills · Accepted Answer

Final Answer : D, Explanation :  Epidemiological researchers established a causal relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer and heart disease by inferring it as all seven criteria were met, and they also relied on overwhelming evidence. Additionally, experimental studies were conducted to prove the causal relationship. Therefore, option D is the correct answer.

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